Kafiristan

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Map showing present-day Nuristan province in Afghanistan
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Kāfiristān or Kāfirstān (Persian: کافرستان) was a historic name of Nurestan (Nuristan), a province in the Hindukush region of Afghanistan and Pakistan, prior to 1896. This historic region lies on, and mainly comprises, basins of the rivers Alingar, Pech (Kamah), Landai Sin, and Kunar, and the intervening mountain ranges. It is bounded by the main range of the Hindukush on the north, the city of Chitral in Pakistan to the east, the Kunar Valley in the south, and the Alishang River in the west. Kafiristan takes its name from the inhabitants, the Kafirs, a fiercely independent people with distinctive culture, language and religion. They were called Kafir ("infidel") because they were not Muslim.

George Scott Robertson, later British political officer in the Princely State of Chitral, was given permission to explore the country of the Kafirs in 1890-91. He was the last outsider to visit the area and observe these people's polytheistic culture before conversion. He published a description in 1896 called The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush. Though some sub-groups such as the Kam paid tribute to Chitral, most of Kafirstan was left on the Afghan side of the frontier in 1893, when large areas of tribal lands between Afghanistan and British India were divided into zones of control by the Durand Line.

Soon after Robertson’s visit, in 1895-6, Emir Abdur Rahman Khan invaded and converted the Kafirs to Islam as a symbolic climax to his campaigns to bring the country under a centralized Afghan government. He had similarly subjugated the Hazara people in 1892-3. In 1896 Abdur Rahman Khan, who had thus conquered the region for Islam[1], renamed the people as Nuristani ("Enlightened Ones" in Persian) and the land as Nuristan ("Land of the Enlightened").

Kafirstan consisted of steep, wooded valleys and was famous for its crisp wood carving especially of cedar-wood pillars, carved doors, furniture (including 'horn-chairs') and statues. Some of these pillars survive reused in mosques, but all temples, shrines, and cult places with their wooden effigies and multitudes of ancestor figures were torched. Only a small amount were brought back to Kabul as spoils of this Islamic victory over infidels. These consisted of various wooden effigies of ancestral heroes and pre-Islamic commemorative chairs. Of the more than thirty wooden figures brought to Kabul in 1896 or shortly thereafter, fourteen went to the Kabul Museum and four to the Musée Guimet and the Musée de l'Homme in Paris [2]. Those in the Kabul Museum were badly damaged under the Taliban but have since been restored [3].

Kafiristan was invaded several times and eventually its cultural identity became degraded as priests were killed, religious sites burned, young boys kidnapped and conscripted into the Afghan military school in Kabul, as Islam was imposed. Only a few hundred Kati Kafirs (the Red Kafirs of the Bashgal Valley) fled across the border into Chitral but uprooted from their homeland had converted by the 1930s. They settled near the frontier in the valleys of Rumbur, Bumboret and Urtsun, which were then inhabited by the Kalasha tribe (the Black Kafirs). Only this group in the three valleys of Birir, Bumburet and Rumbur, escaped conversion because they were located east of the Durand line, under the administrative control of the British Raj and later Pakistan. After declining population figures throughout the 70's, this region of Kafiristan in Pakistan has recently shown an increase in its population, much to the delight of historians and local philanthropists.

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[edit] Etymology

Kafirstan means land of the infidels in the Persian. According to the conventional etymology, the name "Kafir" derives from Arabic Kafir, commonly translated into English as "infidels" or "idolaters". Kafiristan then would be "The Land of the Infidels". This explanation would justify the renaming of the country after its Islamization.

Many historians,[4] however, opine that the local name "Kafir" comes from Kapiś (= Kapish), the ancient Sanskrit name of the region that included historic Kafiristan; which is also given as "Ki-pin" (or Ke-pin, Ka-pin, Chi-pin) in old Chinese chronicles. That name, unrelated to the Arabic word, is believed to have, at some point, mutated into the word Kapir. This linguistic phenomenon is not unusual for this region. The name of King Kanishaka, who once ruled over this region, is also found written as "Kanerika", an example of "ś" or "sh" mutating to "r".[5] In a similar way, Kapiś -- the name of the people of Kapiś/Kapiśa, is believed to have changed to Kapir and then Kafir [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. One of the dominant clan of the Kafirs till recently was known as Katir. In many languages, term Kafir is pronounced as Kapir.

The second change from Kapir to Kafir, may have occurred spontaneously, since the exchange of "p" by "f" is fairly common in Indo-European languages. It may also have been the result of confusion or intentional wordplay with the Arabic word, since the Kafirs were indeed pagans until 1895.

The derivation of Kafiristan is now fairly easy since -stan in Iranian language means country, abode or place. Thus, Kafiristan would literally mean the land or abode of the Kafir (Kapir) peoples i.e. people belonging to Kapiśa.

Today it is disputed if the term Kafir really defines a traditional ethnic group.

[edit] Kafiristan in Ancient History

Ancient Kapiśa Janapada located south-east of the Hindukush included and is related to Kafiristan [20]. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited Kapisa in 644 AD calls it Kai-pi-shi(h) [21]. Hiuen Tsang describes Kai-pi-shi[22] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighboring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Banu etc. Till 9th century AD, Kapiśi remained the second capital of the Shahi Dynasty of Kabul. Kapiśa was known for goats and their skin.[23] Hiuen Tsang talks of Shen breed of horses from Kapiśa (Kai-pi-shi). There is also a reference to Chinese emperor Tai-Tsung being presented with excellent breed of horses in 637 AD by an envoy from Chi-pin (Kapisa) [24]. These Kapisa or Chi-pin (Ki-pin) horses of the Chinese records, in reality, were the famed Kamboja breed since Kapisa was a mere part of ancient Kamboja [25][26]. Further evidence from Hiuen Tsang shows that Kai-pi-shi produced all kind of cereals, many kinds of fruits, and a scented root called Yu-kin. The people used woolen and fur clothes and gold [27][28], silver and copper coins . Objects of merchandise from all parts were found here [29].

[edit] Kapiśa equivalence to Kamboja

As stated above, Kapiśa is related to and included Kafiristan. Scholar community holds that Kapiśa is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44] In other words, Kamboja and Kapiśa are believed to be two attempts to render the same foreign word (which could not appropriately be transliterated into Sanskrit).[45][46][47][48]. Dr S Levi further holds that old Persian Ka(m)bujiya or Kau(n)bojiya, Sanskrit Kamboja as well as Kapiśa, all etymologically refer to the same foreign word.[49][50][51] Even the evidence from third century Buddhist tantra text Mahamayuri (which uses Kabusha for Kapisha) and the Ramayana-manjri by Sanskrit Acharya, Kshmendra of Kashmir (11th c AD), which specifically equates Kapiśa with Kamboja and substituting the former with the latter, sufficiently prove that Kapiśa and Kamboja are equivalent.[52][53] Even according to illustrious Indian history series: History and Culture of Indian People, Kapisa and Kamboja are equivalent [54]. Scholars like Dr Moti Chandra, Dr Krishna Chandra Mishra etc further observe that the Karpasika (of Mahabharata) [55] and Kapisa (Ki-pin/Ka-pin/Chi-pin of the Chinese writings) are synonymous terms [56]. Thus, both Karpasika and Kapiśa are essentially equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja [57]. And Paninian term Kapiśi is believed to have been the capital of ancient Kamboja.[58] Kapiśa (Ki-pin, Ke-pin, Ka-pin, Chi-pin of the Chinese records), in fact, refers to the Kamboja kingdom, located on the south-eastern side of the Hindukush in the Paropamisadae region. It was anciently inhabited by the Aśvakayana (Greek: Assakenoi), and the Aśvayana (Greek Aspasio) (q.v.) sub-tribes of the Kambojas. Epic Mahabharata refers to two Kamboja settlements: one called Kamboja, adjacent to the Daradas (of Gilgit), extending from Kafiristan to south-east Kashmir including Rajauri/Poonch districts,[59][60] while the original Kamboja, known as Parama Kamboja was located north of Hindukush in Transoxiana territory mainly in Badakshan and Pamirs/Allai valley, as neighbors to the Rishikas in the Scythian land.[61] Even Ptolemy refers to two Kamboja territories/and or ethnics - viz.: (1) Tambyzoi, located north of Hindukush on Oxus in Bactria/Badakshan and (2) Ambautai located on southern side of Hindukush in Paropamisadae. Scholars like Dr S. Levi, Dr Michael Witzel and many others accept the identity of Tambyzoi and Ambautai with Sanskrit Kamboja. Obviously, the Ptolemian Ambautai formed parts of the Kapiśa kingdom under sway of Aśvakayana/Aśvayana (Aśvaka) Kambojas. It appears probable that the original home of the Kambojas was trans-Oxian Kamboja, from where, some tribal sections moved south-wards and planted colonies in Paropamisan on southern side of Hindukush. With passage of time, the Paropamisan settlements came to be addressed as Kamboja proper, whereas the original Kamboja settlement lying north of Hindukush, in Transoxiana, became known as 'Parama-Kamboja' i.e. furthest Kamboja.[62] Some scholars call Parama Kamboja as 'Uttara-Kamboja' i.e. northern Kamboja [63] or Distant Kamboja [64]. The Kapisa-Kamboja equivalence as suggested by scholars like Dr Levi applies to the Paropamisan Kamboja settlement.

[edit] Kam, Kamoj, Kamoz and Kamtoz of Kafiristan

Mountstuart Elphinstone (1779– 1859) observed in early 19th century that the Kafirs of Kafiristan call themselves Camoj/Camoz [65]. Later investigators like Henry Walter Bellow (1834-1892 [66], George Scott Robertson (1852-1916) [67], and John Biddulph (1848 - 1921) [68] also attest that a principal tribe of Kafiristan is divided into upper Kam (Kamoz) and lower Kam (Kamtoz). The Scholars have identified in the names of Camoj/Camtoz or Kam, Kamoz/Kamtoz the relics of ancient Kambojas [69]. Thus, it can bee seen that the former Kafirs of the Hindukush mountains (modern Nuristanis) are believed to have predominantly descended from ancient Kambojas of Kapisa country.

[edit] Appearances in popular culture

Kafiristan is where the famous Rudyard Kipling story "The Man Who Would Be King" takes place. The story was made into a film in 1975.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Tanner, Stephen. Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002. Page 64
  2. ^ Edelberg, Lennart. "Statues de bois rapporte‚ es du Kafiristan aà Kabul apreàs la conquête de cette province par l'Emir Abdul Rahman en 1895/96," Arts Asiatiques 7, 1960, pp. 243-286
  3. ^ Restored Nuristani sculptures http://www.reportages-pictures.com/AFGHANISTAN/R20405%20KAkir%20sculpture%20from%20Nuristan%20destroyed%20by%20the%20talibans%20then%20restored/index.htm
  4. ^ For instance, Thomas Watters, Moti Chandra, Suniti Kumar Chaterjee, Prof Surya Kanta, J. L. Kamboj, Kirpal Singh etc.
  5. ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1856, p 239, by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Indian Caste, 1877, p 286, John Wilson; India of To-day, 1906, p 280, Walter Del Mar.
  6. ^ On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D., 1904, 124, Thomas Watters. See Link: [1].
  7. ^ Publications, 1904, p 124, Published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors T. W. Rhys Davis, S. W. Bushel, London Royal Asiatic Society).
  8. ^ Ancient Buddhist Monasteries: India and Nepal‎, 1998, p 147, S. Gajrani.
  9. ^ Journal of Indian History‎, 1963, p 20, University of Kerala Dept. of History, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History, University of Travancore, University of Kerala - India.
  10. ^ Census of India, 1961, p 26, India Office of the Registrar General, Office of the Registrar General, India.
  11. ^ Transaction, Indian Institute of World Culture, p 4, y Indian Institute of World Culture, Published by Indian Institute of World Culture.
  12. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 44, Dr Moti Chandra - India.
  13. ^ Census of India, 1961, p 26, published by India Office of the Registrar General.
  14. ^ Journal of Uttara Pradesh Historical Society, Vol XVI, Part II, pp 48-50.
  15. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, J. L. Kamboj, Dr Satyarti Shastri.
  16. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 94, Kirpal Singh.
  17. ^ See also: Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, p xii, Surya Kanta; cf: The Contemporary Review, Vol LXXII, July-Dec, 1897, p 869, A. Strahan (etc), London.
  18. ^ S. Levi states that Chinese Kipin is a rendering of an Indian word Kapir (See quote in: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 44, Moti Chandra - India; See also: Bhārata-kaumudī; Studies in Indology in Honour of Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji, 1945, p 916, Radhakumud Mookerji - India).
  19. ^ In ancient Sanskrit literature, there are numerous instances where the name of the people was obtained from the geographical territoty they belonged to or occupied. Thus Kamboja was both the name of the people as well as their country. Similarly, Gandhara, Vahika, Kuru etc. were names of people as well as their countries. In a similar way, the inhabitants of Kapis (Kapisa) were known as Kapis ==> Kapir which later transmuted to Kafir.
  20. ^ Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata, 1970, p 112, Dr R. C. Jain; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the Peoples of Bharatavarsa, 1955, p 133, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; The Cultural Heritage of India, 1936, p 151, Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Committee; Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 198, Bhagwan Singh Suryavanshi.
  21. ^ Another Chinese name for this region was Ki-pin or Chi-pin.
  22. ^ Su-kao-seng-chaun, Chapter 2, (no. 1493); Kai-yuan-lu, chapter 7; Publications, 1904, p 122-123, published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors Dr T. W. Rhys Davis, S. W. Bushel, London, Royal Asiatic Society).
  23. ^ Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 183, B. S.Suryavanshi.
  24. ^ See:: T'se-fu-yuan-kuei, p 5024; Wen hisen t'ung-k'ao, 337: 45a; Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589-1276, 2005, P 345, Hans Bielenstein
  25. ^ IMPORTANT NOTE: In entire ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature as well as in inscriptional records, no mention ever is made of the Kapisa horses except in the Chinese records as noted above. But references to the foremost breed of Kamboja horses abound endlessly in ancient texts and inscriptions. This fact also proves that Kapisa was same as (or a part of) the Kamboja Mahajanapada and hence the horses referenced in the Chinese records are none else than the Kamboja breed.
  26. ^ Cf: Indian studies: past & present, 1967, p 449, Indo-Aryan philology.
  27. ^ Corpus II. 1, xxiv; Cambridge History of India, Vol i\I, p 587.
  28. ^ Ancient references like Mahabharata, Ramayana etc profusely attest that the Kambojas produced and made use of woolen, fur and skin clothes and shawls, all embroidered with gold. Ancient Kambojas were noted for their horses, gold, woolen blankets, furry clothing etc (Foundations of Indian Culture, 1990, p 20, Dr Govind Chandra Pande - Spiritualism (Philosophy); Hindu World, Volume I, 1968, p 520, Benjamin Walker etc
  29. ^ Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, 1906, p 54 & fn, By Samuel Beal.
  30. ^ Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India, Edition 1993, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
  31. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 43, Dr Moti Chandra - India.
  32. ^ Ref: The Greeks in Bacteria and India 1966 p 170, 461, Dr William Woodthorpe Tarn.
  33. ^ Indian Antiquaries, 1923, p 54.
  34. ^ The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 291; Indian historical quarterly, Vol XXV-3, 1949, pp 190-92.
  35. ^ Kathakasankalanam: amskrtagranthebhyah sangrahītani Kathhakabrahmana,- 1981, P xii, Surya Kanta.
  36. ^ Epigraphia Indica, Vol XIX-1, p 11.
  37. ^ Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1953, p 58, Sir William Kerr Fraser-Tytler, M. C. Gillet.
  38. ^ Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, pe xii, Dr Surya Kanta.
  39. ^ cf: JBORS, XVI, 1930, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; cf: Visnu Purana, II, p 182, Wilson quoted in Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: 1981, p xiv, Surya Kanta.
  40. ^ Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
  41. ^ Cf: Society and Culture in the Time of Daṇḍin, 1972, p 89, Dr Gupta, Dharmendra Kumar.
  42. ^ cf: Journal of Indian History, 1921, p 21, University of Kerala, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History.
  43. ^ Cf: Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, p 26, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Deptt. of History; Alexander the Great, 2003, Edition, p 277, Dr W. W. Tarn.
  44. ^ Non-Aryan Linguistic Elements in the Atharvaveda, 2000, 137, Abhijit Ghosh - Vedic language.
  45. ^ Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services. See Link: [2]; .
  46. ^ Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, K. D. Sethna; Purana, Vol VI No1, January 1964, K. D. Sethna.
  47. ^ See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
  48. ^ Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī; cf also: Dr J. W. McCrindle, Ptolemy, p 268.
  49. ^ Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
  50. ^ See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
  51. ^ Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
  52. ^ See: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923 .
  53. ^ Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
  54. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, Vol III, pp 122, 617, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr. K. M. Munshi.
  55. ^ Mahabhara 2.48.7.
  56. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 44, Dr Moti Chandra - India; Tribes in the Mahabharata: A Socio-cultural Study, 1987, pp 94, 314, Krishna Chandra Mishra - Mahābhārata.
  57. ^ Dr Moti Chandra writes: "Thus before us is placed a suggestion that Kapis- Kamboja denoted the same geographical unit. To this may also be added Karpasika which on account of its rare appearance seems to be clinging to some original form phonetically very near to the Sanskritised form Karpasika when more common form as Kapisa and Kamboja were being commonly used" (See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, P 44, Dr Moti Chandra.
  58. ^ A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation, 2000, p 388, Dr Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed(d).
  59. ^ The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1977, p 15, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Dr Achut Dattatraya Pusalker, Dr Asoke Kumar Majumdar; An Advanced History of India, 1973, p 54, Dr Rameṣa-Chandra Majumdar; The Soul of India, 1961,p 56, Amaury De Riencourt.
  60. ^ Mahabharata 7.4.5; Mahabharata II.27.23.
  61. ^ Mahabharata II.27.25; Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Dr John Muir - 1874; Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien: Studien und Reisen, 1865, p 186, Adolf Bastian; The Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; Some Aspects of Ancient Indian History and Culture, 1974, p 62, Dr Upendra Thakur; The Greco-Sunga Period of Indian History, Or, the North-West India of the Second Century B.C. 1973, p 39, Dr Mehta Vasishtha Dev Mohan; Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 14, B. S. Suryavanshi. The Riśikas & the Parama Riśikas, whom the Mahabharata closely allies with the Parama-Kambojas, are located right into Śaka-dvipa or Scythia, north of Oxus. See: India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
  62. ^ See: Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Prof John Muir; Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh.
  63. ^ See: Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories, 1927, p 227, Narayanchandra Banerjee.
  64. ^ Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 117.
  65. ^ See refs: Mountstuart Elphinstone, "An account of the kingdom of Caubol", fn p 619;Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1843, p 140; Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1874, p 260 fn.
  66. ^ An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1891, p 146, Henry Walter Bellew.
  67. ^ The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush: 1896, pp 71, 76 sqq, Sir George Scott Robertson, Arthur David McCormick - Nuristani (Asian people).
  68. ^ Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, 1977, p 127, John Biddulph - Ethnology.
  69. ^ Vishnu Purana, p 374, fn, Trans: H. H. Wilson; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1849, p 98, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; The Encyclopaedia Britannica:, 1888, p 822, Thomas Spencer Baynes; The Sun and the Serpent: A Contribution to the History of Serpent-worship, 1905, p 127, Charles Frederick Oldham; An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1891, p 146,150,195, Henry Walter Bellew; Die altpersischen Keilinschriften: im Grundtexte mit Uebers., Grammatik und Glossar von F. Spiegel: im Grundtexte mit Uebers., Grammatik und Glossar, 1881, p 214. edited by Friedrich Spiegel; Reisen im indischen Archipel, Singapore, Batavia, Manilla und Japan, 1869, p 216, Adolf Bastian; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 43, Moti Chandra; Ancient Geography of India, 1071, p 29, Anundoram Borooah; The Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol 25-26, 1949-50, India; The Achaemenids and India: By Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya. 2d Rev. Ed, 1974, p 13, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya; Kāmarūpaśāsanāvalī, 1974, p 137, Dimbeswar Sarma, P. D. Chowdhury, R. K. Deva Sarma; The Calcutta Review , 1880, p 120, India; The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1936, p 513, India; The geographical dictionary of ancient and mediaeval India, 1971, p 87, Nundo Lal Dey; Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology: Purāṇas in Translation, 1970, p 741, Jagdish Lal Shastri, Arnold Kunst, G. P. Bhatt, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare; Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan, 1972, p 356, India Army. General Staff Branch, Ludwig W. Adamec - Afghanistan; Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1953, p 58, William Kerr Fraser-Tytler - Afghanistan; Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, 1962, p 80, 311; The Journal of Asian Studies, 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.), Country Survey Series, 1956, p 53, Inc Human Relations Area Files, Human Relations Area Files, Inc - Human geography etc.

[edit] See also

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafiristan"