Book of Deuteronomy

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Moses depicted receiving the Law (top half), and then reading the Law to the Israelites (bottom half)

Deuteronomy or Devarim (literally "things" or "words") is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fifth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch.

The book consists of three sermons or speeches delivered by Moses, a recounting of the law (thought to be the Book of the Covenant found in Josiah's time), and supplementary material, including an account of Moses' death.[1]

Theologically the book constitutes the renewing of the covenant between YHWH, the Jewish God, and the "Children of Israel".

One of its most significant verses is considered to be Deuteronomy 6:4, which constitutes the Shema, a definitive statement of Jewish identity: "Hear, O Israel: the LORD (YHWH) (is) our God, the LORD is one."

Traditionally seen as recording the words of God given to Moses,[2] modern biblical scholars see it as the work of many authors, probably originating during religious reforms carried out under king Josiah.[3] There is evidence to support its composition beginning as early as the 8th century BCE.[4]

Contents

[edit] Title

In Hebrew the book is called Devarim, דְּבָרִים, "[spoken] words",[5] taken from the opening phrase Eleh ha-devarim, "These are the words...". The English title is derived from the Greek Deuteronomion (Δευτερονόμιον) and Latin Deuteronomium, both meaning "second law", from the Septuagint's mistranslation of the Hebrew phrase mishneh ha-torah ha-zot, "a copy of this law", in Deuteronomy 17:18, as to deuteronomion touto - "this second law".

[edit] Summary

Deuteronomy consists of 34 chapters and is in the genre of a farewell address (in this case) of Moses to the Israelites in the plains of Moab before their entry into the Promised Land.[6]

[edit] First sermon or speech

Deuteronomy 1-4.43 recapitulates Israel's disobedient refusal to enter the Promised Land and the resulting forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The disobedience of Israel is contrasted with the justice of God, who is judge to Israel, punishing them in the wilderness and destroying utterly the generation who disobeyed God's commandment. God's wrath is also shown to the surrounding nations, such as King Sihon of Heshbon, whose people were utterly destroyed. In light of God's justice, Moses urges obedience to divine ordinances and warns the Israelites against the danger of forsaking the God of their ancestors.

[edit] Second sermon or speech

Deuteronomy 4.44-11.32 forms a second introduction, expanding on the Ethical Decalogue given at Mount Sinai.

[edit] Reproclamation of the divine law

Deuteronomy 12-26is the Deuteronomic Code, a series of mitzvot (commands), forming extensive laws, admonitions, and injunctions to the Israelites regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in Canaan, the land promised by the God of Israel. The laws include (listed here in no particular order):

[edit] Instructions concerning the covenant renewal and Shechem

Deuteronomy 27-28 sets out sanctions against breaking the law, blessings to the obedient, and curses on the rebellious. The Israelites are solemnly adjured to adhere faithfully to the covenant, and so secure for themselves, and for their posterity, the promised blessings.

[edit] Third sermon or speech

Deuteronomy 29-30 contains the renewal of the covenant between God and the Israelites, which is conditional upon the people remaining loyal to YHWH. By the direction of YHWH, Moses then appoints Joshua as his heir to lead the people into Canaan. He writes down the law and gives it to the Priests, commanding them to read it before all Israel at the end of every seven years, during the Feast of Booths.

[edit] Supplementary Material

Deuteronomy 31-34

Moses depicted viewing the Promised Land, as in Deuteronomy 34:1-5.

[edit] Composition, history and structure

The many similarities between the book and the reforms of Josiah described in 2 Kings 22:8, and correspondences with the themes of certain earlier prophetic books such as Hosea, suggest that a first version of Deuteronomy, chapters 4:44-28:68, was composed during this period, using material dating back to the 8th century and the kingdom of Israel.[11] Further additions were made during 6th and 5th centuries, and the book did not reach its current form until the post-Exilic period.[12] With a history stretching over several centuries there can be no question of a single author, but its origins have been traced to a "Yahweh-alone" movement of the 7th century BCE and to a distinct class of scribes educated in a Judean "wisdom tradition".[13]

A broad consensus exists that sees the history of Deuteronomy in the following terms: (1) In the late 8th century both Judah and Israel were vassals of Assyria. Israel rebelled, and was destroyed c.722 BCE. Refugees came to Judah bringing with them a number of new traditions (new to Judah, at least). One of these was that Yahweh, already known and worshiped in Judah, was not merely the most important of the gods, but the only god who should be served. This outlook influenced the Judahite landowning elite, who became extremely powerful in court circles after Josiah became king at the age of eight. (2) By the time Josiah reached maturity Assyrian power was in rapid decline, and a pro-independence, pro Yahweh-alone movement gathered strength in the court, expressing itself in a state theology of loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of Israel. Josiah and the Deuteronomists launched a full-scale reform of worship based on an early form of Deuteronomy 5-26, which takes the form of a treaty between Judah and Yahweh replacing that between Judah and Assyria. This covenant was formulated as an address by Moses to the Israelites (Duet.5:1). (3) The destruction of Judah by Babylon in 586 BCE and the end of kingship was the occasion of much reflection and theological speculation among the Deuteronomistic elite, now in exile in Babylon. They explained the fall of the eternal House of David as Yahweh's punishment of their failure to follow the law, and created a history of their people (the books of Joshua through Kings) to illustrate this. At the end of the Exile, when the Persians agreed that the Jews could return and rebuild the Temple, chapters 1-4 and 29-30 were added and Deuteronomy was made the introductory book to this history, so that a story about a people about to enter the Promised Land, became a story about a people about to return to the land. (4) The final stage was the addition of chapters 31-34 as a conclusion.[14] The significance of these closing verses, with their assertion that "never again did there arise in Israel a prophet like Moses" (Deuteronomy 34:10-12), was to state authoritatively that the Deuteronomistic view of theology, with its insistence on the worship of Yahweh as the sole god of Israel, was the only permissible religion, sealed by the greatest of prophets.[15]

Deuteronomy is structured as a set of speeches that both look back on the history of the Israelites wanderings in the wilderness and look forward to them entering the "promised land."[16]

Wright:[17]

  • 1:1-5 Preamble: identifying the speaker and addressees
  • 1:6-4:49 Historical Prologue: relating significant events
  • 5-11 General Stipulations
  • 12-26 Detailed Stipulations
  • 27-28 Blessings and Curses
  • 30-34 Witnesses

Troxel:[18]

  • 1-4:43 New Introduction
  • 4:44-11 Original Introduction
  • 12-26 Deuteronomic Code
  • 29-34 Original Conclusion
  • 32 Blessings
  • 33 Prophesy of exile, captivity and future restoration
  • 34 Report on the death of Moses

Thompson:[19]

  • 1:1-4:43 Survey of History Retrospective account of God's saving acts and Israel's rebellion
  • 4:44-28:68 Moses' second Address Decalogue and then more extensive stipulations
  • 29:1-30:20 Moses' third Address A recapitulation of the covenant
  • 31-34 Final acts of Moses Parting words, charge to Joshua and death

Wenham:[20]

  • 1-3 Historical prologue
  • 4-11 Basic stipulations
  • 12-26 Detailed stipulations
  • 27 Covenantal clause
  • 28 Blessings and Curses
  • 29-30 Recapitulation and appeal
  • 31-34 Historical conclusion

Other scholars, such as Meredith Kline propose that the Book of Deuteronomy mirrors the well-established ancient genre of a Hittite suzerain vassal treaty (Suzerainty) in which the lord declares his goodness to his vassals before detailing the conditions of their relationship.[21] The suzerain vassal treaty would conclude with “a lengthy list of blessings and cursings that would follow obedience or disobedience to the covenant stipulations."[22] Following Kline’s understanding of Deuteronomy as an ancient treaty between lord and vassal, book is structured as follows: preamble (1:1–5); historical prologue (1:6–3:29); basic and detailed stipulations (chaps. 4–26); cursings and blessings, ratification (chaps. 27–30); and succession arrangements (chaps. 31–34) including the invocation of witnesses and provision of public reading.

[edit] Themes

[edit] Deuteronomic theology and Deuteronomistic history

The core of Deuteronomy's theology is a conscious covenantal pattern in which Yahweh and Israel are bound to each other by oaths of fidelity (Yahweh and Israel each faithful to the other) and obedience (Israel obedient to Yahweh); obedience to Yahweh's torah (laws) will bring blessings to Israel, disobedience will bring punishment.[23] God exercises complete control over the process of history, and the events of the world are explicable in terms of Israel's fidelity to the Covenant. The [[Deuteronomistic history}} (the series of books following Deuteronomy, namely Joshua, Book of Judges|Judges]], Samuel and Kings) is not simple reportage of events so much as an explanation of the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE in terms of this God-directed history.[23]

[edit] Covenant

The Covenant, a major theme of the Pentateuch, plays a central role in the theology of Deuteronomy.[24] Israel is YHWH's vassal, and Israel's tenancy of the land is conditional on keeping the covenant, which in turn necessitates tempered rule by state and village leaders who keep the covenant. "These beliefs", says Norman Gottwald, "dubbed biblical Yahwism, are widely recognized in biblical scholarship as enshrined in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua through Kings), with pronounced affinities to the Pentateuchal 'E' source and to the prophets Hosea, Jeremiah, and Malachi."[25]

[edit] Israel

Dillard and Longman stress in their Introduction to the Old Testament the 'living' nature of the covenant between YHWH and Israel as a nation.[26] The people of Israel are addressed by Moses as a unity. Their allegiance to the covenant is not one of obeisance, but comes out of a pre-existing relationship between YHWH and Israel, established with Abraham and attested to by the Exodus event. In many ways the laws of Deuteronomy set the nation of Israel apart, signally the unique election of the Jewish nation.

[edit] Land

The book of Deuteronomy is set immediately prior to the Israelite invasion of the 'promised land.' Therefore it is not surprising that land forms a major theme of the book. Israel is called to possess the land and many of the laws, festivals and instructions in Deuteronomy are given in the light of Israel's occupation of the land. Deuteronomy presents God as giving Israel the land. Dillard and Longman note that "In 131 of the 167 times the verb 'give' occurs in the book, the subject of the action is YHWH."[27]

[edit] Law

Further information: Mosaic law

After the review of Israel's history in chapters 1 to 4, there is a restatement of the Decalogue in chapter 5. This arrangement of material highlights God's sovereign relationship with Israel prior to the giving of establishment of the Law.[28] The Decalogue in turn then provides the foundational principles for the subsequent, more detailed laws. Some scholars go so far as to see a correlation between each of the laws of the Decalogue and each of the more detailed 'case-law' of the rest of the book.[29] This foundational aspect of the Decalogue is also demonstrated by the emphasis to actively remember the law of God (Deuteronomy 6:4-9), immediately after the Decalogue. The Law as it is broadly presented across Deuteronomy defines Israel both as a community and defines their relationship with YHWH. There is throughout the law a sense of justice. For example the demand for multiple witness (Deuteronomy 17:6-7), cities of refuge (19:1-10) or the provision of judges (17:8-13). The Law also features an important distinction between clean and unclean foods.

Classes Clean Unclean
Mammals Two qualifications: 1. Cloven hoofs 2. Chewing of the cud Carnivores and those not meeting both "clean" qualifications
Birds Those not specifically listed as forbidden Birds of prey or scavengers
Reptiles None All
Water Animals Two qualifications: 1. Fins 2. Scales Those not meeting both "clean" qualifications
Insects none, except the locust All, except the locust

Through history there have been several explanations for the rationale of this division. John Calvin asserted the division was arbitrary. Another suggestion is that some of the animals deemed unclean were used in pagan sacrifices. Other commentators suggest hygiene as a rationale. Finally some scholars suggest the rationale is symbolic and the cleanness of animals is based on their proximity to humanity.[30]

[edit] Obedience

Millar writing in the Dictionary of Biblical Theology sees the major theme of Deuteronomy as obedience.[31] The historical overview of the first several chapters demonstrate Israel's disobedience but also God's gracious care. This is followed up after the Decalogue, with a long call to Israel to choose life over death and blessing over curse, in chapters 7 to 11.[32] Daniel Block notes that the assumption in Deuteronomy is that "obedience is not primarily a duty imposed by one party on another, but an expression of covenantal relationship."[33]

[edit] Monolatrism

The book of Deuteronomy presents only the God of Israel, under the name of YHWH (Yahweh) or Elohim, and speaks against the worship of other gods. For example in chapter 17 Israel is warned against worshiping the gods of other nations. This focus on the exclusive worship of YHWH has led some scholars such as Wright to say "Deuteronomy is uncompromisingly, ruthlessly monotheistic."[34] The focus of most of the book is the God of Israel. Throughout Deuteronomy either his actions, attributes or purposes are in view.[35] To the exclusion, notes McConville, of other deities.[36]

[edit] Worship

The centralization of worship is an important and repeated theme in Deuteronomy.[37] Dillard and Longman remark that the emphasis on centralization is designed to focus the hearer's attention on the unique and exclusive holiness of YHWH.[37]

[edit] Deuteronomic school

As early as the 19th century the concept of a "Deuteronomic school" (or Dtr for short) of authors and editors sharing a common outlook was proposed to explain the similarities between Deuteronomy and other books, including, among others, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, Amos, Micah, and Zephaniah. In 1943 a German biblical scholar, Martin Noth, put forward the proposition that the series of books from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings had been given a major redaction (editing) during the Babylonian Exile (586-539 BCE) in order to create a unified history of the Israelites.[38]

[edit] Deuteronomy in later tradition

[edit] Judaism: the shema (שמע)

Deuteronomy 6:4-5: "Hear (shema), O Israel, the Lord (YHWH) is our God, the Lord (YHWH) alone!" has become the basic credo of Judaism, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah (religious commandment). The shema goes on: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might;" it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come with this.

[edit] Christianity

Main article: Biblical law in Christianity

The earliest Christian authors interpreted Deuteronomy's prophecy of the restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian church (Luke 1-2, Acts 2-5), and Jesus was interpreted to be the "one (i.e., prophet) like me" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15 (Acts 3:22-23). In place of the elaborate code of laws ("torah") set out in Deuteronomy, St. Paul, drawing on Deuteronomy 30:11-14, explained that the keeping of the Mosaic covenant, was overturned by faith in Jesus and the gospel (the New Covenant).[39]

[edit] See also

Books of the Torah
  1. Genesis
  2. Exodus
  3. Leviticus
  4. Numbers
  5. Deuteronomy

[edit] References

  1. ^ Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 148.
  2. ^ Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Rev. Ed. of: Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary.; Includes Index. (Nashville: T. Nelson, 1995).
  3. ^ Christopher Wright, Deuteronomy NIBC (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1996): 6.
  4. ^ Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 148.
  5. ^ morfix online dictionary; in modern Hebrew this meaning is "smichut" (genitive noun construct), e.g. "לפי דבריך" = "according to what you said".
  6. ^ Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 148.
  7. ^ Deut. 22:13-21
  8. ^ Deut. 21:10-14
  9. ^ Deut. 22:5
  10. ^ Deut. 23:10-14
  11. ^ Patrick D. Miller, "Deuteronomy" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1990) pp.2-3
  12. ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, (Eerdmans, 2003) p.154 p.153
  13. ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p136
  14. ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, (Eerdmans, 2003) p.154
  15. ^ Jeffrey H. Tigay, The Significance of the End of Deuteronomy, in Michael V. Fox et. al. (eds), "Texts, temples, and traditions: a tribute to Menahem Haran" (Eisenbrauns, 1996) pp.137ff.
  16. ^ J.G. McConville, 'Deuteronomy, Book of' Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003): 183.
  17. ^ Wright, Deuteronomy, 3.
  18. ^ Ronald L. Troxel, Deuteronomy and the Torah Published Lecture delivered at the University of Wisconsin.
  19. ^ J. A. Thompson, 'Deuteronomy' New Bible Dictionary (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996): 274.
  20. ^ Thompson, 'Deuteronomy, Book of', 274.
  21. ^ Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament, Zondervan, 97-98.
  22. ^ Dillard, 98.
  23. ^ a b Brueggemann, Walter, "Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2002) p.53
  24. ^ J. G. Millar, 'Deuteronomy' Dictionary of Biblical Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2000): 160.
  25. ^ Norman K. Gottwald, review of Stephen L. Cook, The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism, Society of Biblical Literature, 2004
  26. ^ Dillard & Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 102.
  27. ^ Dillard & Longman An Introduction to the Old Testament, 104.
  28. ^ Thompson, Deuteronomy, 112.
  29. ^ G. Braulik, The Theology of Deuteronomy: Collected Essays of Georg Braulik (Dallas: D. & F. Scott Publishing, 1998).
  30. ^ Gordan J. Wenham, 'The Theology of Unclean Food' Evangelical Quarterly 53 (1981) 6-15.
  31. ^ Millar, 'Deuteronomy', 160-165.
  32. ^ Millar, 'Deuteronomy', 161.
  33. ^ Daniel I. Block, 'Deuteronomy' Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005): 172.
  34. ^ Wright, Deuteronomy, 10.
  35. ^ Block, 'Deuteronomy, Book of', 171.
  36. ^ McConville, 'Deuteronomy, Book of', 190.
  37. ^ a b Dillard & Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 104.
  38. ^ Pury p.24
  39. ^ J. G. McConville, "Deuteronomy", in Dictionary of the Old Testament: The Pentateuch (IVP, 2002); and "Deuteronomy 30:11-14 As a Prophecy of the New Covenant in Christ," Steven R. Coxhead, Westminster Theological Journal 68 (2006).

[edit] External links

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[edit] Books on biblical scholarship (general)

[edit] Books on Deuteronomy/Deuteronomistic History

[edit] Versions and translations

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